The Brief Analysis of Faux Amis in Chinese―English Translation

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Abstract：Taking “个人主义”& “individualism” and “封建”&“feudal” for example， this paper gives the brief analysis of faux amis in chinese―english translation， and puts forward some measures to avoid them in translation.

Key words：Chinese―English translation； faux amis； individualism； feudal

中图分类号：H319 文献标识码： A 文章编号：1672-1578（2014）8-0002-02

Faux amis， also called “false friend” or “false cognate”， is defined as a word which has the same or very similar form in two languages， but which has a different meaning in each.

（Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching& Applied Linguistics[Z].Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press，2005.） For instance， the French word verger means “orchard”，not“verger” in English. In Chinese―English translation， faux amis can impair the understanding of words， even the ones sanctioned by popular usage. This paper aims to discuss faux amis by two typical examples.

1 “个人主义”& “individualism”

“个人主义”is a word very familiar to the Chinese people. In practical translation， this Chinese word is always simply translated as “individualism”. In most authoritative dictionaries， such as Chinese―English Dictionary（Beijing： Foreign Languages Press，2007.）and A Modern Chinese―English Dictionary（Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching And Research Press， 2006.）， the two words are also considered equivalent. Their conceptual meanings are not all the same.

In the Chinese language，“个人主义” is always a derogatory term which refers to selfishness or self-centered. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary（《现代汉语词典》，北京：商务印书馆，2012.）， it is defined as“a wrong thinking which proceeds from oneself by putting one’s personal interest above the collective， and only takes one’s own interest into consideration without others’.”（“一切从个人出发，把个人利益放在集体利益之上，只顾自己，不顾别人的错误思想。”） For example，

（1）这个人自私自利，个人主义思想严重。

（2）为了圆满完成任务，我们要集体合作，不要搞个人主义。

“Individualism”， in English， is not always derogatory. According to Encyclopedia American，“individualism” first arose in 1835 in English. R. W. Emerson（1803―1882）， the famous American philosopher use this word to advocate the idea that all men are created equal and express the spirit that refers to freedom and liberation. Nowadays， individualism is widely accepted in European and American society and has become an unquestionable moral truth in the Western culture.

What’s more， in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English（Beijing： Beijing Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press， 2005）， this word is defined as （1）the belief that the rights and freedom of individual people are the most important rights in a society；（2） the behaviour or attitude of someone who does things in their own way without being influenced by other people. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of English Language（New Revised Edition， New York： Random House） ， the authoritative reference book in the field of English， lists the following five entries of this word，

（1）social theory advocating the liberty， rights， or independent action of the individuals；（2）the principle of habit of independent thought or action；（3） the pursuit of individual rather than common or collective interest； egoism；（4） an individual peculiarity；（5） Philos. a. the doctrine that only individual things are real； existence as a distinct individual； b. the doctrine or belief that all actions are determined， or at least take place for the benefit of individual， not of the mass of men. Other dictionaries and reference books also give the similar explanation.

Therefore， in the English language， the most important explanation of “individualism” refers to the respect and advocacy of individual rights， and the third entry， which is opposite to“altruism” or“collectivism， is used only in a few cases.

Of course， “individual”， defined as “single human being” in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English （Fourth Edition）， can be appropriately equivalent to “个人”， and the suffix “-ism” is always translated as “主义” in the Chinese language. However， in most cases， “individualism” and “个人主义”are faux amis. Through the above analysis， it is clear that“个人主义” cannot always be equivalent to “individualism” and we must deal with the meanings cautiously in Chinese―English translation.

1. If “个人主义”mainly refers to selfishness， it may be translated as “egoism” or “egocentric”， which are often used in a derogatory sense.

2. In some cases， we can use “modifier+ individualism” model to express it. That is， some adjectives can be added before “individualism”， especially derogatory ones. For example， “rampant individualism”， “rugged individualism”， “extremist individualism” and the like can be applied appropriately.

2 “封建”&“feudal”

The word“封建”is commonly used in the Chinese language， ranging from the academic circles to the daily life. In the academic circles， “封建社会” is always regarded as the ancient Chinese society from the Warring States to the beginning of Opium War. “封建” is also widely applied to the Chinese daily life， such as“封建迷信”，“封建婚姻” etc. Generally speaking， it refers to almost all the phenomena in the traditional China.

Nowadays，“封建” is always equivalent to “feudal” in practical translation. In Chinese―English Dictionary （Beijing： Foreign Languages Press， 2007.）， all the items except one of “封建”are translated as “feudal” or “feudalism”. For instance， 封建主： feudal lord， 封建专制主义： feudal autocracy， etc.

According to Concise Oxford English Dictionary （Revised Edition of the Tenth）， “feudal” is the adjective form of “feud”， which means “of the feudal system”. In this dictionary， the definition of “feud” is “the social system in the medieval Europe whereby a vassal held land from a superior in exchange for allegiance service”.

“封建”has a long history in the Chinese language. In On Feudalism （《封建论》） by Liu Zongyuan（柳宗元）in Tang Dynasty （618―907）， the word “封建”is generally confined to the Pre-Qin Period. According to Ciyuan （《辞源》，北京：商务印书馆，1983.） ，“封”is defined as the monarch granting the lands to the princes， important ministers， etc. or the lands granted to the vassal states by the monarch.“封建”is the abbreviation of“封土建国”or“封邦建国”， which refers to the monarch granting the lands and the titles of nobility to the vassal countries， allowing them to establish their own states. This system， which can be originated from the period of legendary Huangdi（黄帝）， was basically completed in Zhou Dynasty （about 1100 BC）， and was abolished in Qin Dynasty （221 BC―206 BC）.

Therefore， it is clear that the word“封建”in Pre-Qin Period is generally equivalent to “feudalism” in medieval Europe. Of course， they also have many differences.

In modern and contemporary China， the word“封建”or some phrases deriving from this word in most cases refer to the following two concepts， 1） the period from the beginning of Warring States Period （476 BC or 403 BC） to the of outbreak of Opium War（1840） or the establishment of People’s Republic of China（1949）； 2） the backward and outworn system or thought which is against modern and contemporary civilization. It can be concluded that these meanings are completely different from its original meaning in Chinese， let alone “feudal” in English.

All in all，“封建”and “feudal” are faux amis in most cases. In practical Chinese―English translation， this Chinese word “封建”must be treated flexibly in different situations.

1. Despite some discrepancies，“封建”in Pre-Qin Period and “feudal” have many aspects in common and the equivalence between“封建”and “feudal” is sanctioned by popular usage. Therefore， we can continue to be translated it as “feudal”. Of course， the translation is not supposed to be too rigid， and it can be dealt with flexibly sometimes. In this aspect， the early Sinologists set good examples for us. For example， James Legge （1815―1897） dealt with “封建”flexibly in the translation of The Book of Songs（《诗经》） and Tso Chuan （《左传》）. He translated “故封建亲戚，以藩屏周”in Tso Chuan as “… raised the relatives of royal house to the rule of States， that they might act as fences and screens to Zhou”.

2. If“封建”refers to the period from the beginning of Warring States Period （476 BC or 403 BC） to the of outbreak of Opium War（1840） or the establishment of People’s Republic of China， it cannot be simply translated as “feudal” in most cases because “feudal” or “feudalism” doesn’t tally with the characteristics of the society of these periods. Therefore， we should try other ways to translate it. The narrative pattern in the occidental historical works can sometimes be applied. For example， we can use “ancient or classical”， “medieval”， “the early modern society” to express it.

3. Providing“封建”refers to the backward and outworn system or thought which is against modern and contemporary civilization， we should pay special attention to it， because this meaning is widely used in the Chinese daily life and there are few patterns like “feudal + X” patterns in English. We should make the abstract concept concrete and define. For instance， “封建专制”may be translated as “absolute monarchy”.

3 Conclusion

From the above analysis， due to many reasons， faux amis must not be neglected in Chinese―English translation. Cultural differences， history， social customs and the like greatly affect the meaning of words. For qualified translators， not only the great master of languages but also the consciousness of cultural differences， the understanding of societies and broad knowledge are necessary. In translation， we should not only understand words through taking them so literally but understand their central and essential meanings through the surface so that not be confused by faux amis.

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作者简介：杜杨（1984-），男，职称：讲师。研究方向：英语教学、英汉互译，中西文化对比。