Reconsideration on People Studying in Japan in Chinese Modern History

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1 College of Education, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei, China.

2 The Central Institute for Correctional Police, Baoding, Hebei, China.

* Corresponding author.

Received 5 September 2011; accepted 22 January 2012.

Abstract

This paper analyzes the reason why people went to study in Japan in Chinese Modern History in various aspects. It aims at discovering in depth the historical significance of the movements of studying in Japan in Chinese modern education history and hopes to be of some help in doing research of history of studying abroad and education in modern Chinese history.

Key words: Modern period; Study abroad; Japan

Résumé

La présente étude vise à étudier les différentes raisons suivant de nombreux aspects que les chinois étudient au Japon. Elle vise aussi à explorer en plus profondément la signification d’historique de l’histoire du movement moderne de l’éducation des chinoise au Japon.

Mots clés: Récent; Etudier à l’étranger; Le Japon

ZHU Wenfu, FAN Guofu (2012). reconsideration on people studying in japan in chinese modern history. Canadian Social Science, 8(1), -0. Available from: URL: /index.php/css/article/view/j.css.1923669720120801.1255 DOI: /10.3968/j.css.1923669720120801.1255.

“During the long period of the feudalism, China has been recognized as the Celestial Empire by other countries. All countries have witnessed the superiority of Chinese cultures and its achievements have outstripped all neighboring countries for a time. (LI, 2007, p.5)” However, Japan is a country with limited territory and few natural resources. To the north of Japan is Siberia which is sparsely populated, the south is the unfathomable Mariana Trench and the east is the boundless Pacific Ocean. It can be seen that the geological environment of Japan is very serious which can be said that it is in crisis in every moment. “According to the incomplete statistics, there are at least 4 earthquakes registered 3.0 points on the Richter scale or above everyday in Japan. (LI, 2007, p.129)” Nonetheless, “Japan can be thought as the best country in overcoming one’s weaknesses by acquiring other countries’ strong points. When Japan was going through the transition from the slavery to feudalism in the seventh century AD, the Tang dynasty of China was enjoying its golden age of prosperity. The highly development of Chinese feudalism has inspired the Japanese greatly which has made them go across the sea time and time again to study the Chinese culture” (LI, 2007, p.2). For thousands of years, the awareness of unexpected development and the characteristic of studying from others have made the Japanese treat China their teacher humbly. They studied Chinese philosophy, literature, political system and even life styles and customs from every aspects. However, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 has become the turning point of the position of China and Japan. China turned into the student instead of the teacher of Japan. “Indigo blue is extracted from the indigo plant but is bluer than the plant it comes from” (HUANG, 1990, p.68-69). Therewith, “students gathered together shouting ‘turn right’ and left their local schools to buy boats and ships travelling a long distance to Japan. They came from various places in China. In the north, there are students from Tianjin. In the south, there are students from Shanghai. Once there is a ship going to Japan, all students vie with each other in getting on the ship and all ships are full of students every time. They were eager to get to Japan to study. . . . It is the fact that students did their best to try to get to Japan as early as they can to study. (Sanetō, Keishū, 1983, p.37)”Since then on, the movements of studying in Japan in Chinese modern education history has begun.

Why does the former teacher have to learn from its previous student? Why has the country that used to receiving students from other countries now turned into one that need to send its own students to overseas? This paper analyzed the reasons of the Chinese studying in Japan in modern China in the following six aspects and wishes to be of some help in doing research in the history of education and studying abroad history of China.

1.A GREAT SUCCESS OF THE JAPANESE MEIJI RESTORATION

“The exchange of the position of China and Japan in the education relation is based on the success of the Meiji Restoration in Japan. (YANG, 2004, p.6)” “The concept of the world order that the Japanese knew before the Meiji Restoration was come from China. . . . After the Meiji Restoration, the national power of Japan has become stronger and stronger. At the same time, the Qing government of China was getting more and more corrupt. The image that China is the centre of the world in the Japanese has totally been effaced. . . . There is nothing more to learn from in Asia as the Japanese thought. (LI, 2007, p.158)” Although the Meiji Restoration in Japan is 7 years late than the Westernization Movement of China, the obstacles in Japan cannot be compared with the federal ruling class in China. “Japan aimed at ‘departing from Asia for Europe’. It learned economic from the United Kingdom, military from Germany, culture from the America and carried out three measures that ‘Building a prosperous country and strengthening its military force; sponsoring industrialists to enrich industry of the whole country; and promoting civilization in Japanese citizens’. Consequently, the Japanese has found its own nationalistic, family owned, anti-individual way of modernization which turned the Japan from a less developing agricultural country into a developed industrial country. (LIANG, HUANG, 2011)” If we count the day that the Japanese forced the British to abolish the unfair treaties between them and the day that the Japanese started the Sino-Japanese War as the finishing day of the Meiji Restoration, we can see that from June 1868 to July 1894 Japan has transformed itself from a semi-feudal and semi-colonial weak country which was always invaded and enslaved by western powers to a powerful nation in the world which can be compared with the western countries by 26 years. However, one of the successes of the Meiji Restoration is promoting “culture civilization policy” in cultural lives of the Japanese which is sending students to overseas to study. In fact, Japan has started sending students to Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the United States and other countries from 1862. Inoue Kaoru, Itō Hirobumi, Nishi Amane, Tsuda Mamichi, Kato Koji, Mori Arinori, Mitsukuri Rinsho, Terajima Munenori and so on are outstanding representatives of those students who went to foreign countries to study. All of them played important part in promoting the development of Japan. “Why does studying from the western countries have brought good result in Japan but bad one to China? . . . It is not because that talent and intelligence of Chinese people are not as good as the Japanese or the land and products of China are not as many as Japan, the biggest reason is the health of the whole nation. I always think that Japan is like a famer who has a strong body and sound mind. Once he get the opportunity to learn new things, he can absorb all foreign cultures, digest them, transfer them to all veins of his body and turn them into precious beverage so that to help him achieve very great success. (LIU, 1943)”

2.DEFEAT OF CHINA IN THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR OF 1894-1895 AND THE TREATY OF SHIMONOSEKI

Among all the anti-aggression wars in modern Chinese history, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 can be thought as the most painful one that has the most far-reaching influence, the worst consequence and gives the Chinese the most lessons. The reason for saying so is because at that time both China and Japan had almost the same economic and military power, however, the failure of China in the war is predictable which was caused by the Qing government’s lack of preparation and completely passive attitude while on the other hand, Japan was stage-managed for the war for a long time. So to speak, to invade, take, and even destroy China has been a fixed basic national policy of Japan in its modern history. As long as seven years before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Japan had drawn up secretly the “Methods and strategies of expedition to China” which clearly stated the overall thinking of invading and possessing China. The author of the “Methods and strategies of expedition to China” Ogawa who was the chairman of the second bureau of the military staff headquarters and general of the Japanese Army clearly stated “since this year, we have to finish the preparation in the next five years. If the time comes, we will attack it (QI, 2006, p.14).” He also made very detailed and secret plan of invading and destroying China. The actual starting date of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 was basically the same as the Japanese planed. The aim of invading and destroying China is too obvious. Therefore, the failure of China which did not make fully preparation and was lack of foresight in this war is inevitable.

In 17 April 1895, the prime minister of the Qing government and governor of Zhili Province LI Hongzhang, the prime minister and plenipotentiary representative of Japan Ito Hirobumi, and the foreign minister of Japan Mutsu Munemitsu represented separately China and Japan agreed and signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in Shimonoseki, Japan. The signing of this treaty marks the end of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. The Treaty of Shimonoseki is the most serious, acrimony, and unjustifiable unequal treaty since the Beijing Treaty. It has brought huge benefits for Japan. Japan grabbed two hundred and thirty million taels of silver as the war indemnity and warships and other trophies which worth more than one hundred million Japanese Yen. The amount of money equals to three years’ state revenue of the Qing government and also equals to 50 months’ revenue of the Japanese government according to the situation of Japan in 1896. Japan’s foreign minister Mutsu Munemitsu was very excited about the result, “I did not expect that there would be several billion Yen before the war indemnity. The total income of Japan is only 80 million yen. As long as I think about there will be 350 million Yen come to our pocket, no matter the government and the public will feel extremely rich.” The defeat of China in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-1895 and the Treaty of Shimonoseki has shocked the Qing government which always thought China as the Celestial Empire. The stimulation to the Qing government was far bigger than the astonishment brought by wars between China and the United Kingdom and the United America from 1840. It was just as LIANG Qichao said: “China was awoken from its four thousand years’ dream by the war indemnity of 200 million in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 and the lost of Taiwan.” The Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 is a direct contest and crash between Chinese and Japanese cultures after the Meiji Restoration while the defeat of China in the war and the Treaty of Shimonoseki were the blasting fuse of the movement of sending Chinese students to study in Japan. Therefore, a group of patriotic young students and intellectuals were eager to go to Japan to know how the Japan got strong in such a short period and some other people from the Qing government also hope to learn the experiences from Japan to promote reform of China.

3.STRONG PROVOCATION FROM THE JAPAN-RUSSIA WAR IN 1904-1905

In order to carve up Northeast China and North Korea once more to fight over the hegemony of Asia and the Pacific Ocean, Japan and Russia started an imperialist war on the land of the Northeast China which is the so called Japan-Russia War. This war has made Japan the first country of yellow race that defeats white colonists through large-scale war and it also has sent Japan to the no-return road of militarism. Through the mediation of the America after the war, both Japan and Russia ignored the existence of China. They signed the Treaty of Portsmouth in the naval base of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA to divide up Northeast China and North Korea.

The victory of Japan and signing the Treaty of Portsmouth to carve up Northeast China and North Korea in the Japan-Russia war has strongly provoked Chinese patriotic intellectuals, especially the ones that studying abroad. They saw clearly the weakness and inability of the Qing government than others and they also knew that autarchy cannot defeat the constitutional country. So they were more eager to study the way that Japan got the victory. This has become one of the factors that provoked Chinese students to study in Japan and also promoted the first peak period of the movement of sending students to study in Japan.

4.THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE VIEWS ON JAPAN

On the whole the Chinese despised the Japanese before the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895. The main views of the Chinese on the Japanese are traditionally the “Dong yi” and “the smallest island”. Most Chinese got to know the Japanese by the “Chorography of Japan” wrote by HUANG Zunxian in 1887.

The failure of China in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 has announced the failure of the reform movement of “studying from the western and conquer them by using their advantages” which was led by the Westernization group inside the Qing government. From this moment on, the Chinese view on Japanese has changed thoroughly. The fast and rapid growth of Japan has changed itself from a small island country as Chinese thought into an successful example for the whole China. The attitude of Chinese to Japanese has also changed from negligence to admiration. In the late Qing dynasty and the early period of the Republic of China, the basic way to learn from Japan was dispatching students to Japan to study. However, China treated Japan as a teacher while Japan treated China in difference and even wanted to invade and destroy China.

“The change of Chinese view on Japanese from a “small island country” to a successful example was a leap of the attitudes of China towards Japan. However, the invasions of Japan to China help Chinese realize the aggressive nature of Japan which is a deeper understanding about the Japanese nation. The two processes did not happen in the same time period but they collectively constitute the fundamental aspects of modern Chinese views on Japan. With more and more invasions from Japan to China, the recognition of the later view has becoming more and more popular (YU, ZAHO, 2007)”.10

5.THE POLICIES MADE BY THE QING GOVERNMENT OF STUDYING IN JAPAN FOR CHINESE STUDENTS

5.1Related Theories and Policies in the Qing Government on Studying In Japan

a. The Theory of “Studying from the Strong Enemy” by Kang Youwei

KANG Youwei thought that the failure of China in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 was caused by the failure of education reform in China. He thought China lacks of talents and also said “the reason that Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 was not because its soldiers were better than ours. It is because that in Japan there are various kinds of talents who study different disciplines and their talents were fully used in the war to defeat China (CHEN, CHEN, 1997, p.312).” Therefore, he wrote the “Memorial of asking for establishing more schools” to the Qing government in May 1989 to ask them set colleges, universities around China to promote the training of talents so that to revitalize China. After the reform movement, KANG Youwei made deep analysis in a memorial stating the reason of the result of the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895.

After the start of the Reform movement, KANG Youwei analyzed the reason of the victory of Japan and the failure of China in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 in detail. “The failure of China in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895, lost of Taiwan, and war indemnity of millions all caused the sadness of the whole nation. I think the reason for these is not that Japan is better than us. It is because we secluded the country from the outside world and did not have enough talents to compete with them. . . . . . Since then, China should compete in the world rather than close its door to the outside. . . . . . Japan was once a closed country to the outside world while it started reform early and dispatched students to other countries to study in order to learn politics, laws, industries, literatures and other knowledge from Europe. It also translated books from other developed countries and use the knowledge learnt to rule its country. These are the reasons that Japan is more powerful than China. The way for us to save our own country at this moment should be no different from what Japan did in the past (KANG, 1898, p.301-302).” Accordingly, KANG put forward slogan that “learn from strong enemy”. He thought that “we now have Japan as the leader of reform for us. We can gain advantages without any disadvantages. What a cheerful method! We only need to learn from their texts. Due to the changes they made from western countries, the scope and form are easy for us, methods are clearer and detailed. Compared with translation directly from Western texts without any guidance, it is much easier for us to learn from Japan (CHEN, TIAN, 1991, p.319).” The thought of KANG Youwei that he strongly suggested learning from the experience of Japan to study the western culture was widely accepted by governors of the Qing Dynasty. It played a key role in dispatching students to study in Japan by the government and the making of education policies according to Japan in the late Qing dynasty. In the light of KANG Youwei’ s positive thought that “the policies and systems of the Europe and America were built in about 300 years and by learning and copying them, Japan only took 30 years to form a same system. If all of our Chinese people learn from Japan, we can get a general plan in about 3 years, study and enrich it in 5 years, in 8 years we can see some effect and we will be strong and powerful in 10 years at most (CHEN, TIAN, 1991, p.320).”

b.ZHANG Zhidong’s “Quan Xue Pian”1

The most known effort of ZHANG Zhidong is the historical achievements he made in the process of transforming Chinese education from traditional feudalism to modernization. “If the “Leaving Asia Theory” by Fukuzawa yukichi was called a declaration of Japan’s separation in Culture from China, then the “Quan Xue Pian” by ZHANG Zhidong was an essential for Chinese to study from Japanese culture (YANG, 2004, p.6)”. As the historical texture of Chinese modern education thoughts, “Quan Xue Pian” revealed typically that study from Japan was a positive educational choice under national risk (YANG, 2004, 74)”. It was called Deed of Declaration of studying in Japan by well-known scholar, researchers on Chinese modern history professor Sanetō Keishū.

ZHANG Zhidong’ s “Quan Xue Pian” is a theoretical summarization of the Westernization Movement. It was based on the summarization of practice of the Westernization Movement and serious analysis and thinking on the political trend of China at that moment. It aims at providing useful information for Chinese education reform in the future. In the article “You Xue” of the “Quan Xue Pian”, ZHANG states the importance of studying abroad in detail. He especially gives sufficient demonstration on the issue of studying in Japan. “Study in a foreign country superior to reading western books for 5 years. . . . . . How does a small country like Japan become powerful? Ito Hirobumi, Yamagata Aritomo, Enomoto Takeaki and Mutsu Munemitsu are all students studied in foreign countries 20 years ago. They were angry that Japan was threatened by western countries and then they decided to call hundred people to study in Germany, France, and Britain, etc.. They studied politics, commerce, industries, and military. After they graduated from overseas, the government used them as important generals and ministers of the state and they were later important people in invading China. . . . . .About the destination countries for studying, I think western countries are not as good as the eastern ones. First, the travel to eastern countries is nearer and less expensive so that we can dispatch more students with the same money. Second, the eastern countries are near China and they are easy to investigate. Third, Japanese is familiar with Chinese language and easy to understand. Last, the study of western cultures are too complicate and the Japanese have deleted useless contents and corrected inappropriate aspects already, so due to the culture alike between China and Japan, I think it is much easier to study in Japan to yield twice the result with half the effort (ZHANG, 2002, p.39)”.

c. “Joint Memorial from Viceroys of Liangjiang and Chu”

With the bombardment by the Eight-Power Allied Forces of Britain, France, Germany, America, Italy, Austria, Japanese, and Russian, Tianjin and Beijing were captured one by one in 29 January 1901. It was another humiliation for the Qing government since the invasion of Anglo French Allied Force to Beijing in 1860. The situation forced Empress Dowager Cixi admitted that “although public orders and morals cannot change, the way of ruling a country usually changes”. She was forced to ask for a wide range of opinions about reform and therefore the historical process of New Deal of the late Qing dynasty was begun. Among hundreds of memorials, the most influential one is the joint memorial proposed by LIU Kunyi and ZHANG Zhidong in July 1901 which is a programmatic document in the modernization of Chinese society in late Qing dynasty. In the “Joint memorial from Viceroys of Liangjiang and Chu”, the first statement is the “Preparation Memorial as Requested by the Emperor of Political Talents Reform at First” which specially states relative issue on rewarding studying abroad. “It is very good to establish more schools; however, if we cannot build enough schools to meet the need of the current situation, it will not be of any help. Anyway, if we want to build as many schools as we need, we may face the two difficulties: too much cost and too less teachers. The difficulty of getting enough teachers is much harder than the difficulty of gathering money. All provinces and towns around the whole nation have their own schools and the number of them must exceed ten thousand, however, there are not too many teachers in those schools. The only resolution for this problem is to go out to other countries to study. . . . . . While the teaching method of Japan is the best for us to learn and their language is familiar with Chinese language, and courses in Japan are much faster than others. Besides, the attitude of Japan to train students is sincere and kind. Students go to Japan cannot only save the cost, but also can get back to China rapidly. Compared with studying in European countries, the cost is only one third of them and the courses in Japan are one time short than the European countries’ (SHU, 1980, p.58-59)”. All these have made certain influence in boosting the movement of studying in Japan.

d. “Regulation on Rewarding Returned Graduates from Overseas”

As early as 1899, the Qing government had commanded Tsungli Yamen draw up methods on rewarding returned graduates from overseas in order to encourage enthusiasm of people to go to study in other countries, however, the methods were not carried out for some reasons. The Qing government released the “Regulation on Rewarding Returned Graduates from Overseas” (10 articles included) drawn by ZHANG Zhidong in 6 October 1903. The regulation stipulates how to reward returned graduates from overseas, decides to give different levels of scholarly honors or official ranks which were equal to the imperial competitive examination’s to excellent graduates. This regulation is the first official one on rewarding graduates studied in foreign countries. It is not only a foundation for the Qing government to reward returned graduates from overseas, but also an official reference for all provinces to reward graduates from overseas. It greatly encouraged Chinese to study in Japan and gave them power to do so. After the release of this regulation, with the abolish of the imperial examination system in 1905, study in other countries was treated as another easy way to get scholarly honors or official ranks which lead to the increase of the number of students studying in Japan.

5.2Related Policies on Studying in Japan in the Republic of China

The Revolution of 1911 in China casts down the Qing dynasty ruling China for up to 267 years and then the Republic of China was born. “After the foundation of the Republic of China, the new government made various kinds of policies except policies on studying abroad in a very short period. The policy of studying abroad was drawn up after 1914. Although 1912 and 1913 are the blank periods of policy of studying abroad, there were still many students dispatched to other countries which are the so called ‘Ji Xun students’ (ZHOU, 2007, p.62).” The so called “Ji Xun students” are selected by the Bureau of Records, dispatched by the Ministry of Education, sponsored by the Ministry of Finance, and their family members were meritorious heroes in the Revolution of 1911 which has very obvious political color.

After the blank period of 1912-1913 of policy on studying abroad, the Republic of China set up a series of education policies and regulations and laws on studying abroad from 1914 of which there are 9 related with studying in Japan. They are shown as the Table 1:

Table 1

Related Policies and Regulations on Studying in Japanin the Early Republic of China (ZHOU, 2007, p.64)

These rules and policies were of some help as a whole in improving the quality of students going to study in Japan and strengthening the management of those students. However, “due to the political upheaval of the early Republic of China, policies and rules on studying abroad could not be put into effect. Many stipulations were only written in the paper. The situation of studying abroad could be said half non-governmental chaos (ZHOU, 2007, p.73).” The aim of studying abroad of the students was not clear and the system of management of students was also unstable. In spite of these factors, the number of students going to study in Japan did not decrease. To the contrast, there was the second high tide period of studying in Japan movement in 1913- 1914 in Chinese modern history.

6.JAPANESE SCHOLARS AND JAPAN’S POLICIES ON ATTRACTING STUDENTS FROM OVERSEAS

Although their motivations and purposes are different, Japanese scholars and Japanese government have the same positive attitude on attracting Chinese students studying in Japan.

Japanese literature scholar Keigetsu Omachi wrote in the Political comments (education) column of the “Sun” journal in 1902 November 5 that “the urgent task of China is to develop education and the urgent task of education is to dispatch students to overseas. China sent students to learn from its previous students can be recognized as a demeanor of great power (ZHOU, 2007, p.64).”

As a new capitalist nation, Japan has win easily in the Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 but it does not have the ability to exclusively dominate China, even after the Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905. Especially the “Sino-Russian Secret Treaty” 1896 (It is also called the “Mutual Support Treaty against Enemies” which was signed by LI Hongzhang on behalf of the Qing government) has given the Japanese government great pressure and panic for this treaty is actually a military alliance treaty which treats Japan as the imaginary enemy. Therefore, based on the national benefit, Japanese government readjusted its policies toward China and wished to fully control over China exclusively. But no matter how Japanese government changes its policies toward China, the aim of them is only one that is to weaken and control China. As the former prime minister, warlord, and senior statesman Yamagata Aritomo said “Japan does not want China have a great and powerful emperor nor a successful republic country. What Japan wants is a weak and incapable China which is ruled by a weak emperor according to Japan and this is an ideal China”.

Fumio Yano communicated with the Qing government in April 1898. He announced that “Japanese government wishes to enhance friendship with China. We heard that China needs talents badly recently. If the Chinese government wants to dispatch students to study in foreign countries, they have to pay for them. . . . . . The amount of students sent by the Chinese government step by step should be limited within 200” (SHU, 1939). Of course, we can learn from many historical materials that the behavior of the Japanese government like this is actually cultivating its followers rather than making friends. The attracting policies carried out by the Japanese government are actually covering the potential aims of Japan that win the Qing government over, eliminate Chinese resentment to Japan, penetrate in Chinese culture and expand Japanese education over China. It was just like the Japanese embassy in China Fumio Yano wrote in his letter to Japanese Foreign Secretary Tokujiro Nishi that “Spread Chinese new talents who studied Japanese culture around the old empire of China, it is definitely the best strategy for Japan to establish its power in the continent of East Asian. Students studied military in Japan will not only make China follow Japanese military regime but also will let the country depend on Japan in its military equipments. The military of the Qing government will be Japanize in this way. Since China has sent many students to Japan to study science and engineering, due to the relation in their work, China must be closely connected with Japan and this is the step for Japan to expand its industry and commerce to China. As for students studying politics and laws, they must treat Japan as a great example and will set standards for the future reform of China. If every suppose above were true, not even Chinese citizens and government will increase 20 more times but will Japan have the power to expand the whole continent unlimited (WANG, 1992).”

Although this proposal has the intention of penetrating Chinese culture and expanding Japanese education to China, for the urgent purpose of self-renewal, the censor of the Qing government YANG Shenxiu firstly agreed and made an initial draft of “Regulation on Studying in Japan” and asked for the implementation of it. After that, Ministry of Defense of the Qing government assigned the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to propose detailed program according to the memorial of the emperor. This detailed program is the first announcement of the Qing government to dispatch students to Japan. From then on, to dispatch students to Japan had become a basic strategy of China.

Of course, study from Japan; dispatch students to Japan, and finally the form of the great movement of studying in Japan have various reasons. Besides of the above reasons, there are still many. All those reasons have jointly promoted modern Chinese bite the bullet, study in Japan, learn from its previous student about the way of being a powerful country and wealthy nation, and therefore boost the historical progress of the modernization of China.

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